ABSTRACT
| LIVER |
v
albumin
in all the experimental groups when compared with the control. Likewise, serum
globulin depicts a significant increase (P<0.05) while groups treated with
pefloxacin and mixture of pefloxacin and ethanol leaf extract of Piliostigma thonningii showed
significant (P<0.05) decrease when compared with the control. Except for group B which reveals a
significant (P< 0.05) increase in serum bilirubin, group C and D showed a
significant decrease when compared with the control. The serum AST concentration
showed a significant (P<0.05) decrease when compared with the control. Liver
AST and ALP reveals a significant decrease in groups
administered with ethanol leaf extract
of Piliostigma thonningii and mixture of pefloxacin and ethanol leaf
extract of Piliostigma thonningii while groups administered with the drug
showed a significant (P<0.05) increase when compared with the control.
Likewise, the Liver ALP showed a significant (P<0.05) increase in groups
treated with the extract and drug alone while groups treated with both the
extract and pefloxacin showed a significant decrease (P<0.05) when compared
with the control. The alterations on the liver functional indices studied
suggest that ethanol leaf extract of p.
thonningii possess a hepato protective effect, but with the evidence of
hepatic injury/assault in groups treated with Pefloxacin which was ameliorated
in groups co- administered with the drug and the extract.
CHAPTER
ONE
1.1
INTRODUCTION
The use of chemotherapeutic agents to manage severe
and life threatening bacterial infections has grown increasingly over the years
because of its effectiveness, mode of administration, packaging, and ease of
carriage made it a more usable therapy (Burkhardt et al., 1997).Due to its curative nature, more people ascribes to
the usage of this therapy knowing a little about the side effect it may exert
on the body.
One of this antibacterial drug which is popularly used
in the treatment of typhoid fever both in the developed and underdeveloped
countries of the world like the tropical Africa is known as pefloxacin or the
fluoroquinolone which belongs to the fluoroquinolone class of antibacterial
(Chevalier et al.,1992).
Pefloxacin is to be considered a drug of last resort
when all antibiotics have failed. This drug is well absorbed by the oral route.
The bioavailability is 100%, protein binding 20-30%, it undergoes hepatic
metabolism with a half-life of 8.6 hours and is excreted mostly through renal
and biliary clearance.(Loren, 2004). With these broad spectrum antibiotic
properties that pefloxacin is possessed with, you cannot deny the fact that it
has a very harmful adverse effect that is generally referred to as the
fluoroquinolone toxicity which is our major interest in this work.(Owens et al.,2005).Pefloxacin has been
reported to have some side effects including the displacement of Y-amino
butyric acid from its receptor, destruction of proteoglycan and collagen. Some
of the serious adverse effects which occur more commonly with fluoroquinolones
than with other antibiotic drug classes, includes central nervous system and
tendon toxicity(Owens et al.,2005).The
unusual side effect include psychosis and cholera(involuntary muscle movements)
(Mulhall et al.,1995). Though, the
currently marketed quinolones have safety profile similar to that of other
antimicrobial classes.Phototoxicity, neurological symptoms, impaired colour
vision, peripheral neuropathy, exanthema, abdominal pain, malaise, drug fever,
dysaesthesia and eosinophilia all have been observed as adverse effects of
pefloxacin (Domagala et al., 1990).
This anti-infective agent which is found to have all of these side effects on
organisms, also capable of inhibiting the synthesis of nucleic acid have been
placed in the table of researchers to find out a curative measure to these
effects and possibly find a way of correcting these harmful properties of the
drug, by so doing, measures have been put in place to use different kinds of
antioxidants to serve as a remedy to this mishap.(Hopkins et al.,2007).Recently, research have been going on to see how some
plants which have an antioxidant properties which can help reduced these
harmful effects by using the active
ingredients of this plants to reduce the side effects that have been
observed over the years, one of such plant is known as Piliostigma thonningii (Liu et
al.,1990).
1.2
BACK GROUND OF STUDY:
There have been several reports on the medicinal roles
of different plants by researchers over the years, one of which is Piliostigma thonningii plant. The
assemblage of different parts of this plant has been found traditionally
useful. As a result, people have resulted to using parts of this plant in the
management or treatment of different kinds of ailments. Such parts are the
stem, roots, seeds and leaf(Bekele-Tesemma.,2007).The stem of this plant have
been used in the management of earache, toothache, diarrhoea, dysentery,
intestinal problems in tropical Africa(Akinpelu and Obuotor.,2000).The back of P.thonningii could be used to manage
cough; this is done by chewing the bark or through infusion. The infusion or
maceration of the bark also includes the treatment of malaria and leprosy. The
analgesic properties of this plant is also ascribed to the bark.(Cowan,1999).
The leaf also serves as a laxative, sometimes giving to neonates as tonic and
to massage mother’s abdomen. The leaves after soaking in hot water are applied
topically to wound dressing(Odukoya,2002).The barks are used in phytochemistry
as elements like alkaloids, antibiotics, bacteriostatic, fungi static, tannins
and astringents(Kunle,2010). The pods root and bark produces dyes, stains,
inks, as bi-products. The leaves are chewed to relieve thirst, the fruits and
seeds can also be edible. The pods and foliage are nutritious to herbivorous
like cattle and elephants.(Kunle,2010). P.thonningii
is also used medicinally in many topical African countries to treat wounds,
ulcers, heart pain, etc. (Siva et al.,
1997).
1.3
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM.
Many reports from different researchers have been
published in recent years about the treatment of various kinds of ailments by
the use of parts of Piliostigma thonningii
leaf on pefloxacin induced hepatotoxicity in Wistar albino rats. The hence,
the need to ascertain effects of this
extract on Pefloxacin induced
hepatotoxicity in wistar albino rats.
1.4
AIM OF THE STUDY.
The aim of this research work is to ascertain the
effect of ethanol leaf extract of Piliostigm
athonningii on Pefloxacin induced hepatotoxicity in Wister albino rats.
1.5
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY.
The objectives of this study is to access the
ameliorative role of Piliostigma thonningii on liver
function indices of rats induced with Pefloxacin by monitoring the serum and
tissue ALT, AST, & ALP, with the serum bilirubin, albumin, globulin and
total protein concentration inclusive.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 PEFLOXACIN.
According to Bryskier and
Chntot (1995) Pefloxacin is a fuoroquinolones,
an analogue of the earlier synthesized nalidixic acid, a bi-product of
chloroquine synthesis. It is a broad spectrum antibiotic commercialized as
Pefloxacin, Peflotab, Albatak in presentation either as film coated tablet
taken orally or as a solution for fusion in ample or as flexible bag for
intravenous injection. Pefloxacin is a new quinolone antimicrobial agent
(Holden et al., 1989). This group of
antibiotics include nalidixic acid and its congeners, which are still useful
agents for the treatment of Urinary Tract Infection (UTC). Others in this group
include those with fluorine atom attached to the quinolones nucleus giving rise
to new generation of antimicrobial agent, which is called fluoroquinolones. Its
chemical structures are shown as thus ;
Fig 1: THE STRUCTURE OF PEFLOXACIN: SOURCE(Holden et
al., 1989).
2.2 PHARMACOLOGY OF PEFLOXACIN:
The chemical name for pefloxacin could be written as;1-ethyl-6-fluoro-7-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)-4-oxoquinoline-3-carboxylic acid.
The chemical formula is C17H2OFN3O3.
Pefloxacin is a fluoroquinolone antibiotic (Loren, 2004). Fluoroquinolones such
as pefloxacin possess excellent activity against gram-negative aerobic bacteria
such as E.coli and Neisseria gonorrhoea as well as
gram-positive bacteria including S.pneumoniae
and Staphylococcus aureus .They also
possess effective activity against Shigella,
Salmonella, Campylobacter, Gonococcal organisms, and multi drug resistant Pseudomonas and Enterobacter (Evans et al.,2002).Its
half-life is 8.6 hours unchanged pefloxacin and its metabolites may be
identified in the urine 84 hours after the intake of this product (Evans et al., 2002).
2.3
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF PEFLOXACIN.
Peloxacin is a broad spectrum antibiotic that is
active against both Gram-negative bacteria. It functions by inhibiting DNA
gyrase, a type II topoisomerase and topoisomerase IV (Drlica and Zhao., 1997), which is an enzyme
necessary to separate, replicated DNA, thereby inhibiting cell division. The
bactericidal action of pefloxacin results from interference with the activity
of the bacterial enzymes DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV, which are needed for
the transcription and replication of bacterial DNA. DNA gyrase appears to be
the primary quinolone target in gram-positive organisms (Hussy et al.,1986).Interference with these two
topoisomerases results in strand breakage of the bacterial chromosome,
supercoiling and resealing. As a result DNA replication and transcription is
inhibited (Hussy et al., 1986).
The fluoroquinolones interfere with DNA replication by
inhibiting an enzyme complex called DNA gyrase. This can also affect mammalian
cell replication. In particular, some congeners of this drug family display
high activity not only against bacterial topoisomerases, but also against
eukaryotic topoisomerases and are toxic to cultured mammalian cells and in vivo
tumour models (Hussy et al.,1986).Though
the quinolones is highly toxic to mammalian cells in culture, its mechanism of
cytotoxic action is not known. Quinolone induced DNA damage was first reported
in 1986 (Hussy et al., 1986). Recent
studies have demonstrated a correlation between mammalian cell cytotoxicity of
the quinolones and the induction of micronuclei (Hosomi et al.,1988, Forsgren et
al., 1987.Gootz et al.,1990).
As such some fluoroquinolones may cause injury to the chromosome of eukaryotic
cells. (Elsea et al., 1992, Suto et al.,1992, Enzmann et al.,
1999). Though there continues to be considerable debate as to whether or not
this DNA damage is to be considered one of the mechanisms of action concerning
the severe and non-abating adverse reactions experienced by some patients
following fluoroquinolone therapy (Yaseen et al., 2003, Sissiand
Palumbo., 2003).
2.4ABSORPTION, DISTRIBUTION AND EXCRETION OF
PEFLOXACIN.
Pefloxacin is a fluoroquinolone which is primarily
cleared by the liver. Its structure carries a methyl group at position 7 of the
piperazinyl group and this structure markedly alters its half-life and renal
handling, changing it from one of which there is net renal tubular
reabsorption. Consequentially, hepatic excretion and biotransformation dominate
the clearance process (Drusano, 1989).The oral administration show a peak
concentration approximately 1.5mg/ml for the 200mg dose, 3.2mg/ml for the 400mg
dose, 5.5mg/ml for 600mg dose and slightly less than 7mg/ml for the 800mg dose.
Peak concentrations increased roughly proportionally with the dose. Absorption
is rapid at all doses with peak concentration occurring at two hours
(Fryman et al.,1986). Urinary
recovery ranged from 11.1 to 17% of the administered oral dose, renal clearance
range from 111m/min (600mg dose) to 135ml/min (200mg dose). Thus non-renal
clearance accounted for the vast majority of total drugs clearance.
The disposition of
Pefloxacin administered intravenously was examined at various doses. The study
revealed a terminal half-life ranging from 9.6hrs to 13.8hrs (800mg dose) to
156ml/min (200mg dose) (Frydman et al.,
1986). The author concluded that Pefloxacin clearance follows a dose dependent
linear fashion. Moreover, the profile of its bi-products in plasma, urine and
bile after the administration of Pefloxacin to normal volunteers, were
pefloxacin glucuronide recovered in urine (Monstary et al.,1984). They are also reported that for either oral or
intravenous dosing of Pefloxacin N-oxide and norfloxacin was found after
multiple doses but absolute concentration of the metabolites were low and
unlikely to be clinically important. (Doull et
al.,(1975) reported that most toxicological studies of drugs used in
Nigeria were carried out in western countries with a temperate climate at room
temperature of about 25 OC. In the tropics, the room temperature is
far above that in temperate regions and Nigeria. It varies from 31OC-40OC
and toxicological studies are often affected by temperature. This is because
temperature affects the concentration of drugs or toxic agents and their
metabolites at specific receptors. Temperature influences the absorption,
storage and elimination of drugs. Becker et
al.,(1982) reported that in a sedative hypnotic drug overdose,
vasodilatation might lead to lowering of the core temperature, especially when
there is exposure to low environmental temperature. In Nigeria, the Federal
Government had institute an enquiry into the controversial trial of trovafloxacin
drug which were carried out by some physicians in collaboration with Pfizer
incorporated, USA was not approved by the National Agency for Food and Drug
Administration Control (NAFDAC). Trovan, a member of the fluoroquinolones group
of antimicrobial agents was administered legally to children during the
outbreak of cerebrospinal meningitis
(CSM) in Kano 1996.In this trial, 200 children were used as guinea pigs. Out of
these, 11 children lost their lives while 189 suffered gross deformity (The
Punch, 2001).The Guardian (2001) another national newspaper expressed
disappointment that the drug travafloxacin which was not approved by American
food and Drug Administration (FDA) even for adults was used for children below
the age of 15 years old. Lietman (1995) had observed that as fluoroquinolones
continue to consolidate their established position as highly effective and
reliable antibiotics, their overall safety provides some interesting challenge
investigation, blister fluid penetration was excellent for all the new
quinolones ranging from 47-82% penetration. Drusanoet al., (1986) had reported that pefloxacin have a longer half-life
compared to other fluoroquinolones. Fourtillar (1985) also reported that
pefloxacin has a serum concentration that is always high than the MIC between
dose. He reported a steady state concentration with 400mg/kg body weight after
12hours parenthorially and intravenously which correspond to area under curve
AUC of 90mg/12hours (0-12hours) compound to that reported for ciprofloxacin by
Bergan et al., (1986), Conzales
(1984) has a steady state of 750mg/12hrs respectively for oral and intravenous
routes. It is also higher than that reported for ofloxacin Metz et al., (1987) and Carbon et al., (1985) which have a steady state
with 200mg/12hrs PO or IV but AUC 16mg/12hrs for oral and intravenous routes
respectively. Pangon et al (1990)
reported that despite the intensive use of pefloxacin therapy, pharmacokinetic
properties of pefloxacin which leads to high concentration and thus preventing the
appearance of resistant strain exists. Penetration into active of interest is
necessary when dealing with sexually transmitted disease where the ability of
antibiotics to penetrate into the specific site may have clinical relevance for
the rate of cure. In general Sade et al (1985) had reported that although the
knowledge that an antibiotic is active in vitro against the infecting organism
is critical, it is not the only factor to be considered. They also reported
that successful therapy depends upon achieving antibacterial activity at the
site of infection without significant toxicity to the host. Hence, the location
of infection may to a large extent dictate the choice of drug and the route of
administration. Peterson (1989) and Cost et
al.,(1989) had reported massive diffusion of pefloxacin into all tissue.
Fallopian tube r=1.30
Endometrium r=1.0
Myometrium r=0.90
Prostate r=0.93
From above Pefloxacin
concentrates more in the fallopian tube hence may be the site of toxicity.Kumonet al., (1985) had also reported that
the concentration of floxacin in
prostate tissue correspond to that in the serum. The value of prostatic tissue
was 1.09-1.69 during 1-6hours after administration. The concentration was done
dependent and showed about 30% increase after the conservative administration.
These works also reported that the drug was concentrated in prostatic fluid in
healthy volunteers and the prostatic fluid level of serum level ratio (PF:S)
was 1.65-1.96.
2.5EFFECTS OF FLUOROQUINOLONES ON HUMAN CELLS.
Pefloxacin at high
concentration of 500ug/ml appear to increase DNA
synthesis in mitogen stimulated human lymphocytes Forsgreenet al.,(1987). Above
observation may contradict with some reports in available literature. Nalidixic
acid, one of the early quinolones shows numerous side effects, which are
expected to be in all fluoroquinolones. These side effects of nalidixic acid
include nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain Geffaid- Recouralet al., (1994). They also reported that
allergic reactions such as pruvits, urticarial, rashes, photosensitivity,
eosinophilia, occasional fever, thrombocytopenia, leucopoenia, haemolytic
anaemia rarely occur. The authors advised that liver function test (LFT) and
blood cell count should be assayed if treatment last longer. Central nervous
system (CNS) effect such as headache, drowsiness, vertigo, visual disturbance,
astheria and myalgia are experienced infrequently, central vascular
insufficiency in particular with parkinsonism or epilepsy in normal children
results after excessive convulsion Forsgreenet
al (1989) reported that Pefloxacin produces irreversible cartilage toxicity
in animals. These authors are also recorded rheumatologic side effects of
pefloxacin and that these might be related to the drugs direct effect on
chondrocyte. Other side effect reported by these authors includes impairment of
liver function with an increase in serum bilirubin and serum hepatic enzymes
which may not be too frequent. Geffraid-Recourad et al .,(1994) reported that there are rare occasions where
pefloxacin cause impairment of renal function with an example in an increase in
serum creatinine. Acute inflammation of kidney, interstitial nephritis and note
that these may develop sometimes to acute renal failure Changes in haematological
parameters has been noticed. Guyton and
Hall (1996) reported that increase in white blood cells count is a
normal physiological response following the perception of a foreign attack by
the defence mechanism of the body. Screeniasulu
and Reddy (1995) reported a gradual decrease in red blood cells count,
packed cell volume (PCV) and haemoglobin after administration of chemical
agents to garden lizards. Umar et al.,
(1996) reported that the gradual but steady fall in red blood cell count, packed
cell volume and haemoglobin was associated with rats after been fed with
garlic. Similar haematological indices were found to be low during the
administration of PY tramethanine to rats (Salako et al., 1990). Increase in transaminases has equally been reported
for pefloxacin (Rhone-Poulene Rover., 1995). These drugs impose complications
in subjects with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency in pregnant
women, lactating women and youngchildren. Further work is expected to justify
the side effects of fluoroquinolones group of antibiotics and possibly discover
other adverse effects not yet reported.
2.6 ADVERSE EFFECT OF
FLUOROQUINOLONES.
In general, fluoroquinolones
are well tolerated with most side effects being mild to moderate. On some occasions, serious adverse effects occur (De
Serra and De Sarra., 2001). Some of the serious adverse CNS and tendon toxicity
(Owens and Ambrose, 2005; Lannini,2007). The currently marketed quinolones,
fluoroquinolones are sometimes associated with QTC interval prolongation and cardiac arrhythmias (IMB,
2009), Convulsions, tendon rupture, torsade de pointes and hypoglycaemia
(Eouveix,2009).These adverse reactions are a class effect of all quinolones,
however, certain quinolones are more strongly associated with increased
toxicity to certain organs. For example Moxifloxacin carries a higher risk of
QTC prolongation (Falagaset al.,
2007) and gatogloxacin has been most frequently linked to disturbed blood sugar
levels, although all quinolones carry these risks (Mehlhorn and Brown, 2007; Lewis and Mohr, 2008). Some
quinolones were withdrawn from the market because of this adverse effect for
example, Sparloxacin was associated with photo toxicity and QTc prolongation,
thrombocytopenia and nephritis were seen with sufloxacin and hepatotoxicity
with trovafloxacin (Rubinsten, 2010). Simultaneous use of corticosteroids is
present in almost one third of quinolone-associated tendon rupture (Khaliq and
Zhanel, 2005). The risk of adverse events is further increased if the dosage is
not properly adjusted, for example if there is renal insufficiency (Mehlhron
and Brown, 2007).
The serious events may occur
during therapeutic use at therapeutic dose levels or with acute overdose. At
therapeutic doses they include central nervous system toxicity, cardiovascular
toxicity, tendon or articular toxicity and rarely hepatic toxicity (Jones and
Smith et al., 1997). Adverse
reactions may manifest during as well as after fluoroquinolone therapy has been
completed (Saint et al., 2000). Fluoroquinolones
are considered high-risk antibiotics for the development of Clostridium difficile and MRSA infection (Muto et al.,2003). A previously rare stain of
C.difficile that produces a more
severe disease with increased levels of C.difficile
toxins in becoming epidemic and may be connected to the use of
fluoroquinolones(Blossom et al.,2007).
Fluoroquinolones are more strongly associated with C.difficile infections than other antibiotics including
clindamycin, third-generation cephalosporins, and beta lactamase inhibitors.
One study found that fluoroquinolones were responsible for 55% of C.difficile infections (Pepinet al., 2005). The European Centre for
Disease Prevention and Control (ECDPC) recommend that fluoroquinolones and the
antibiotics clindamycin are avoided in clinical practice due to their high
association with C.difficile, a
potentially life-threatening super-infection (Ralf-Peter, 2009). The central
nervous system is an important target for fluoroquinolone-mediated
neurotoxicity. Adverse event reporting in Italy by doctors showed
fluoroquinolones among the top three prescribed drugs for causing adverse
neurological and psychiatric effects. These
neuropsychiatric effects include tremor, confusion, anxiety, insomnia,
agitation and in severe cases, psychoses. Moxiflaxacin came out worst among
the quinolone for causing CNS toxicity (Galatti et al.,2005). Some support and patent advocacy groups refer to
these adverse events as fluoroquinolone toxicity. Some people from these groups
claims to have suffered serious long-term harm to their health from using
fluoroquinolones. This has led to a class-action lawsuit by people harmed by
the use of fluoroquinolones as well as action by the consumer advocate group
public citizen, the FDA ordered black box warnings on all fluoroquinolones,
advising consumers of the possible toxic effects of fluoroquinolones on tendons
(Lanini, 2007).
There are also cases of
irreversible peripheral neuropathy as it is associated with pefloxacin’s
adverse reaction (Chan et al., 1990,
Vial et al.,1995). Pefloxacin is
associated with the highest reporting rate in regards to adverse reactions from
any other fluoroquinolones (Leone et al.,
2003). Severe phototoxic adverse events are also noted for peloxacin
(Rubinstein,2001). Pefloxacin is also reported to be the most potent inducer of
photosensitivity in the ultraviolet range, with a higher incidence of skin rash
and photosensitization than other quinolones (Stratton, 1992, Shimodaet al., 1993). Pefloxacin has been
associated with thrombocytopenia, which appears to be dose related (Chichmanian
et al.,1992). It is also reported
that pefloxacin is associated with ocular damage when given to animals in high
dosages. Manifestations included cataracts, multiple punctate lenticular
opacities, retinal morphologic changes and altered visual acuity (Schentag and
Scully.,1999).
Adverse effects of
fluoroquinolones can lead to patients attending hospital emergency rooms. Many
of the important adverse effects of fluoroquinolones are widely under appreciated
by physicians and are often misdiagnosed as other medical or psychiatric
conditions. Physicians typically fail to enquire about antibiotic use to
explain with an acute presentation of new symptoms. The important adverse
effect of fluoroquinolones include hypoglycaemia or hyperglycaemia, QTc
prolongation, central nervous system toxicity, gastrointestinal, skin,
musculoskeletal, cardio toxicity and respiratory effects, phototoxicity,
tendinopathy, angioedema and C. difficile
infections. A further factor that leads to misdiagnosis of quinolone adverse
effects is that some symptoms ac persist or occur for the first time quite some
time after a course of quinolone has been finished, so inquiring about
distant-past use of quinolones has been recommended (Kuijper et al., 2007).
Quinolones are probably the
worst offending antibiotic for causing C.difficile
infections. Some of the adverse effects can present similar to acute dementia,
confusion and psychosis. Quinolones are a common cause of cerebral dysfunction,
with neuropsychiatric disturbances being the most common quinolone adverse
effects. One study found that of all drug classes prescribed by doctors
including psychotropic drugs, fluoroquinolones were the most common cause of
neuropsychiatric adverse effects (James and Roberts, 2008). Injury to the liver
is cholestasis damage. Cholestasis is the reduction of bile flow due to
reduction of the secretion or obstruction of liver enzymes and their return to
normalcy in most cases takes several months with many reactions. But bilirubin
elevation is an indication of necrosis (Hopper and Wolfson, 1993). They
identified impairment of P450 pathway as the worst effect on the liver.
2.7 ASSESSMENT OF LIVER DAMAGE BY QUINOLONES.
The integrity of cell
membrane is assessed by its ability to prevent enzyme leakage and intracellular
energy availability. Enzyme efflux from a variety of cells is markedly
diminished in the presence of excess ATP. Factors such as hypoglycaemia,
anorexia, electrolytes in-balance, bacterial or viral infection, lipid
peroxidation, increase leakage of enzymes from intact organs. The cell membrane
are impermeable to enzymes as long as the cells are metabolising or
rally.(Teitz,1986). He added that activity of circulating enzyme at any given
time is the result of the rate of its release from damage tissue and of its
clearance from the plasma. Teitz (1986) obtained evidence that the recticulo
endothelial system may be concerned in the removal of increase enzymes in the
serum depends on the severity of cellular damage. He further contributed that
increase in hepatic enzymes activity of AST, ALT and ALP are related to liver
damage.
Liver function test can be
accessed on the following enzymes alanine transaminase, aspartate transaminase,
alkaline phosphate but normal range of separate transaminase concentration in
the blood is 13-421 V/L (Benbow and Gill, 1997). Increased in already mentioned
enzymes is an indication of liver damage. Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP)
facilitates the transfer of metabolites across cell membranes, and is
associated with lipid transport and calcification process in bone synthesis.
The form present in normal adult serum probably originates mainly in from the
biliary tract (Teitz, 1986).
According to Schwat and
Calvert (1990) all quinolones are toxic to the liver, especially for long term
treatment and with large dosage. But most serious toxic effects have developed
with the use of three agents such as temafloxacin, trovafloxacin and
grepafloxacin. They concluded that impairment, hepatotoxicity disseminated
intravascular coagulation and hypoglycaemia as well as acute renal failure
developed in nearly two third of patients with temafloxacin syndrome (Giardina,
1991).
2.8 DESCRIPTION OF Piliostigma thonningii PLANT
Piliostigma thonningii
plant is a leguminous plant belonging to the family Caesalpiniacea, a family that comprises of trees, shrubs or very
rarely scramblers. The tree is perennial in nature and its petals are white to
pinkish colour produced between November and April. While the fruits, which is
a hairy, hard, flattish pod turns rusty brown, woody and twisted which spits at
ripening and usually persistent on the tree are produced between June and
September (Lock and Simpson, 1999). Locally, the seed is called Abefe in the
Yoruba land (Nigeria). Other names include Monkey bread, camel’s foot
(English), Kalgo (Hausa), Okpoatu (ibor), ejei-jei (igala,) omepa (igede),
Nyihar (Tiv) (Egharevba and Kunle, 2010,Dasofunjo et al .,2012 and Obepa in Yala land cross River Nigeria (Dasofunjo et al .,2013). P.thonningii grows in open woodland and savannah regions that are
moist and wooded grassland in low and medium altitude. It is widely distributed
in Africa and Asia. It is found growing abundantly as a wild and uncultivated
tree in many parts of Nigeria such as Zaria, Bauchi, Ilorin, Plateau, Lagos,
Benue and Cross River as well as Abeokuta ( Schuttes and Hofmann,1973;
Djuma,2003).One of the fascinating thing about Camel’s foot is that it have a
female and a male flowers which occur on different trees in most cases
(Burkill,1995).
PLATE1: P. thonningii LEAVES
PLATE 2: P. thonningii SEED PODS
PLATE 3:
YOUNG P. thonningii SHRUB.
The flowers are followed by
large, thick, reddish brown, non-splitting pods about 30-70mm long.
(Burkill,1995). The bark is dark brownish grey with a rough surface, simple,
two-lobed, leathery leaves which have a resemblance of a camel’s foot which
account for common name (Burkill,1995). The leaves are dig lately11-12 nerved,
the central nerve elongated as it points into the notch between the lobes of
the 1 leave of about 7.5-15cm long. White flowers, fragment, dropping about
2,5cm long, in racemes alternately leaf-opposed and auxiliary along each branch
and borne some horizontally (Coates, 2002).
2.9 MEDICINAL USES OF Piliostigma thonningii
Different parts of Piliostigma thoninngii (roots and twigs)
have been use medicinally throughout tropical Africa in the treatment of
diseases like dysentery, fever, respiratory ailments, snake bites, hookworm,
skin infection, diarrhoea, ulcers, wounds as well as heart pain.( Iwalewa et al.,1990 Jimoh,2005).The leaf is
useful in the treatment of malaria fever ( Akinniye, 1983; Rabo,2001). The
bark, root, pods and seeds as well as leaf of P.thonningii are used in different preparation for the treatment of
so many other diseases like lumbago, stiffness, toothache, vaginal wash, borne
inflammation etc. (Igoli, 2003).
2.10 ANTIOXIDANT ROLE OF Piliostigma thonningii PLANT
The phytochemicals present
in medicinal plants are basically responsible for the definite pharmacological
effects they exert on the human body. Therefore, Piliostigma thonningii plant extract upon phytochemical screening
is found to contain some important component like flavonoids, alkaloids,
cardiac glycosides, and tannins which plays a very important role in the
metabolism of substances as well as protective functions against the incidence
of peroxidation and cardiovascular diseases (Tendon, 2005).Piliostigma thonningii is very rich in flavonoids, tannins and
alkaloids (Akindahunsi et al., 2005)
and antioxidant molecules such as vitamin C, vitamin E and beta-carotene. These
molecules are likely responsible for the antioxidant activities elicited by the
plant I this study.(Eisenhaver et al., 1998). The antioxidant role of
vitamin E cannot be overemphasized as it has no unequivocal unique function for
vitamin which has been define. Though it acts as a lipid- soluble antioxidant
in cell membranes, where many of its functions can be provided by synthetic
antioxidants and is important in maintaining the fluidity of cell membranes.
(Bender,2003)
2.11 DESCRIPTION OF THE
LIVER.
The liver is an organ having
both secretary and excretory functions. It is the largest organ in the body
weighing about 1.5kg in man. It is located in the upper and right side of the
abdominal cavity immediately beneath diaphragm. The function of the liver in
the body cannot be overemphasized as it is responsible for detoxification,
metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances which makes it an
all-important organ of the body (Gilbert,2000). The liver measures about
8inches (20cm) horizontally, and 6.5inches (17cm) vertically as well as
4.5inches (12cm) thick (Gilbert, 2000, Glodny et al., 2009).
STRUCTURE OF THE LIVER: SOURCE (Gilbert,2000).
2.12 FUNCTIONS OF THE
LIVER:
Liver is the largest gland
and one of the vital organs of the body. It performs many vital metabolic and
homeostatic functions, which are summarised below;
(i)
METABLIC FUNCTION: Liver is the organ where maximum metabolic reactions
are carried out. It plays an important role in energy metabolism. Metabolism of
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and many hormones is carried out in the
liver (Paul et al., 2002).
(ii)
STORAGE
FUNCTION: Many substances
like glycogen, amino acids, iron, folic acids and vitamin A, B12, and D are
stored in liver (Bruce and Carlson, 2004, Glodny et al., 2009).
(iii)
SYNTHETIC FUNCTION: The liver produces glucose by gluconeogenesis. It synthesises
all the plasma proteins and other proteins (except immunoglobulin’s) such as
clotting factors. Complement factors and hormones binding proteins. It also
synthesizes steroids, somatomedin and heparin (Walter and Boron , 2004; Stephen
et al .,2006).
(iv) SECRETION OF BILE: Liver secretes bile, which contains bile salts, bile pigments,
cholesterol, fatty acids and lecithin. (Walter and Boron, 2004;
Stephen et al.,2006).
(v) EXCRETORY FUNCTION: Liver excretes cholesterol, bile pigments, heavy metals (like lead,
arsenic and bismuth), toxins, bacteria and virus (like that of yellow fever)
through bile (Stephen et al., 2006).
(vi) DEFENSIVE AND DETOXIFICATION FUNCTION: The
reticuloendothelialcells(Kupffer’s cell) of the body. Liver is also involved in
the detoxification of foreign bodies. (Stephen et al., 2006; Pike and Bethesday, 2012).
(a) The foreign bodies such as bacteria or
antigens are swallowed and digested by reticuloendothelial cells of liver by
means of phagocytosis.
(b) The reticuloendothelial
cells of liver are also involved in production of some substances like
interleukins and tumour necrosis factors, which activate the immune system of
the body (Pike and Bethesday, 2012).
(c) Liver cells are involved in removal of
toxic property of various harmful substances. The removal of toxic property of
the harmful agent is known as detoxification. The detoxification in liver
occurs in two ways;
(i)Total destruction of the
substances by means of metabolic degradation
(ii) Conversion of toxic
substances into nontoxic materials by means of conjugation with glucuronic acid
or sulphates.(Paul et al., 2002;
Bruce and Carlson,2004).
2.13 OTHER FUNCTION OF THE
LIVER:
The liver also plays its
function in heat production, Hematopoietic, Haemolytic and inactivation of
Hormones and drugs (Stephen et al.,
2006). The liver catabolizes the hormones such as growth hormones, parahormone,
cortisol, insulin, glucagon and oestrogen; it also inactivates the drugs
particularly the fat soluble drugs. The fat soluble drugs are converted into
water soluble substances, which are excreted through bile or urine (Stephen et al., 2006).
2.14 LIVER OR HEPATIC
DISEASES:
They are many kinds of liver
disease, some of which are caused by viruses. The diseased condition of the
liver caused by viruses includes hepatitis A,B and C. Other can be as a result
of drugs, poisons or even excessive intake of alcohol. There is also liver
cirrhosis which refers to inflammation and damage of parenchyma of liver. It
results in degeneration of hepatic cells and dysfunction of liver, another
common one is referred to as jaundice or icterus which is characterized by
yellow colouration of skin, mucous membrane and deeper tissues due to increased
bilirubin level in blood. Cancer could also affect the liver and an inherited
liver disease such as hemochromatosis (Benjamin and Sherman., 2008; Pike and
Bethesda,2012). Gall stone is another chronic liver disease caused by the
deposition of solid crystal formation of cholesterol, calcium ions and bile
pigments in the gallbladder
is known as cholelithiasis while the
presence of gallstone in bile duct is known as choledocholsithiasis.
2.15 SYMPTOMS OF LIVER DISEASES:
The major
symptom of liver diseases includes:
Nauseas, Vomiting, Right
upper quadrant abdominal pain, Jaundice (a yellow discolouration of the skin
due to elevated bilirubin concentration in the blood stream.)Fatigue, general
weakness and weight loss. However, since the various kinds of liver disease,
their signs and symptoms tend to be specific until liver failure sets in at late
state (Lade and Monga, 2011).
2.17 CAUSES OF LIVER DISEASES:
The most common
causes of liver failure include;
Hepatitis A, B and C., Long
period of alcohol intake, Cirrhosis,
Hemochromatosis (Inherited
disorder due to too much absorption and storage of iron).Malnutrition (Cortran et al., 2005).
2.18 SOME CASES OF ACUTE LIVER FAILURE INCLUDES:
Acetaminophen (overdose),Viruses including hepatitis A, B and C
(often in childhood),Reaction to certain prescription and herbal Medications. Ingestion
of poisonous wild mush rooms (Benjamin and Sherman., 2008).
2.19 LIVER FUNCTION TEST (LFT).
As the liver carries out its
various functions, it produces chemicals that are transported into the blood
stream and bile. Since various liver disorders alter the blood level of these
chemicals, these can be measured in a blood samples. The test that is commonly
done on blood sample and liver tissue is referred to as liver function test (LFT) (Berg et al., 2010).Chemicals tested for are usually measured using the
following indices;
Alanine transaminase (ALT): It is enzymes that help process proteins.
Aspartate aminotransferase (AST): It is an enzyme usually found in the liver cells.
Alkaline phosphatase (ALP): This enzyme occurs mainly in liver cells next to bile
ducts and in bones.
Albumin (ALB):
This is the main protein produced by the liver itself.
Total protein (TP):
These measures albumin and all other proteins in blood.
Bilirubin (BIL):
These chemical gives bile its yellow/ green colouration (Lade and Monga.,
2011).Other test such as biopsy, ultrasound scan may be needed to clarify the
cause of a liver disorder or to monitor its progress (Berg et al.,2010; Lade and Monga., 2011).
CHAPER THREE
3.0
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 MATERIALS
3.1.1 PLANT MATERIALS
Fresh leaves of Piliostigma
thonningii was collected from Okuku,
Cross River University of Technology, Nigeria. The
leaves were
taken to the Federal College of Forestry (FCOFJ) Jos,
Department of Herbarium for identification and authentication. The voucher
number of #25 and has been deposited for future reference at the department’s
(FCOFJ) herbarium.
3.1.2 ASSAY KITS
The assay kits for Albumin, Globulin, Bilirubin,
Alkaline
Phosphatase (ALP), Aspartate Amino Transferase (AST)
and Alanine Amino Transferases (ALT) were obtained from Randox Laboratories,
Ltd, United Kingdom. Total protein concentration of the samples was assayed by
the Biuret method (Plummer, 1978).
3.1.3
OTHER REAGENTS
All other reagents used were of analytical grade and
were prepared in all glass distilled water.
3.1.4
EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS
Wistar albino rats were obtained from the animal
holding unit of the Department of Medical Biochemistry, Cross River University
of Technology, Okuku, Cross River State- Nigeria. The animals were allowed to
undergo an acclimatization period of seven (7) days. Each rat was housed in a
wooden cage. The animal room was ventilated and kept at room temperature and
relative humidity of29°c and 40-70% respectively with 12 hours natural
light-dark cycle and were allowed free access to food and water ad libitum. Good hygiene was maintained
by constant cleaning and removal of faeces and spilled from cages daily.
3.2
METHOD
3.2.1 PREPARATION OF ETHANOLIC EXTRACTS OF Piliostigma thonningii LEAVES
The leaves
of Piliostigma thonningii were
collected and air dried for 14days until constant weight was obtained. The
dried leaves were then pulverized to coarse powder by blender machine and
sieved. After which, 300g of the pulverized plant material (P.thonningii) was dissolved in 500mL of
70% ethanol for 72 hours. This was followed with vacuum filtration and extracts
was concentrated using a rotary evaporator water bath at a 40°C. The
concentrate was heated over a water bath to obtain a solvent free extract,
which was stored in a refrigerator at 4°C.
3.2.2
ANIMAL GROUPING AND ADMINISTRATION OF EXTRACT
The animals were randomly assigned into four groups
(A-D) of five male rats each in the cage house. Rats in the control group (A)
were orally administered with water and standard feeds while the animals in
group B was administered orally with same volume corresponding 200 mg/kg body weight of the ethanol leaf
extract group C was administered with Pefloxacin (400mg/5ml ) alone while group D was co-administered with Pefloxacin and the
extract (1:1) for 21days respectively. The animals in each group were sacrificed
24 hours after the completion of their respective doses by cardiac puncture
procedure. The animals were handled humanely in accordance with the guidelines
of European convention for the protection of vertebrate animals and other
scientific purposes- ETS-123 (European Treaty Series, 2005).
3.2.3 PREPARATION
OF SERUM AND TISSUE HOMOGENATES
The animals were anaesthetized in a jar containing
cotton wool soaked in ether. When the animal became unconscious,
they were brought out quickly of the jar, the abdominal region
was opened along the linear Alba cut with scalpel blade to expose
the organs and blood was collected into a sterile sample container by a cardiac
puncture. Blood was collected into a clean, dry centrifuge tube and allowed to
clot for 30 min before centrifuging at 300rpm x 10min using Uniscope Laboratory
Centrifuge. The serum were thereafter aspirated into clean, dry, sample bottles
using Pasteur pipette and were kept or store in sample bottle and used within
12hour of preparation as described by (Malomo, 2005). Each of the organs
(liver) was cut with a clean sterile blade and then homogenized in 0.25 M
sucrose solution 1:5 (w/v) as described by (Akanji and Yakubu, 2000). The
homogenates were later transferred into specimen bottles and kept frozen for 24
hours before being used for the biochemical analysis.
3.2 .5 ENZYME ASSAY
The enzymes
assayed in the course of this project work included, Alkaline phosphatase,
Aspartate Amino Transaminase and Alanine Amino Transferase. These enzymes were
assayed in the homogenates of liver and the serum.
3.2.5.1 DETERMINATION OF
ALKALIN PHOSPHATASE ACTIVITY
The method of Wright et al (1972a) was used in the
determination of alkaline phosphatase activity in the liver and serum in which
paranitro phenyl orthophosphate was hydrolyzed at alkaline PH to P-nitrophenol
and phosphoric acid as shown in (table1).
PROCEDURE:
The assay mixture was
constituted in table (1). All determinations were carried out in duplicates.
Table 1: protocol for acid of alkaline phosphatase
activity
Reagents volume of reagent added (ml)
Blanks Test
0.1m carbonate
buffer (pH 10. 1) 2.2 2.2
0.1m MgSO4.
7H2O
0.1 0.1
Enzyme source (tissue
homogenate
Appropriate diluted) - 0.2
Incubation in water bath at
370C for 10mins
19MM PNPP
0.5⃰⃰ 0.5
Incubation for further 10min
at 37oC in water bath
In NaOH (to stop reaction) 2.0 2.0
The substrate was added to
the blank after stopping the reaction withNaOH.Total reaction mixture is 5.0ml.
The absorbance of the test wasread against blank at 400nm.
Calculation:
O D of Test Conc. Of the STD
O D STD
Where; OD is optical density
STD = standard
Conc. = concentration.
3.2.5.2
DETERMINATION OF ASPARTATE AMINO
TRANSMINASE ACTIVITY PRINCIPLE:
The enzyme catalyses a reversible
reaction involving α-ketoglutarate and L-aspartate form L-glutamate and
glutamate-oxaloacetate transaminase is measured by monitoring the concentration
of oxaloacetate hydra zones formed with 2,4-dinitrophenyl hydrazine. This model
was described by mohun and cook (1957) and Reimanand Frankel (1957)
METHOD:
Solution 1 contains- phosphate buffer PH
7.5 (100Mmol/l), L-aspartate (100Mmol/l) and α-ketoglutarate (2Mmol/l).Solution
2 contains - 2,4- dinitrophenyl hydrazine (2Mmol/l). Measuring against reagent
blank.
sTable
2: protocol for the assay aspartate amino transterase
Reagent
Reagent blank sample
Sample 0.1ml
Solution 1 0.5ml 0.5ml
Distilled water
0.1ml
Mix incubate for 30 minutes at 370c
Solution 2 10.5ml 0.5ml
Mix allow to stand for exactly for 20
minutes at room temperature
Sodium hydroxide
0.5mls
0.5ml
Calculation: activity in international
unit
dilution factor Incubation period x amount of
protein in each enzyme
source-International unit/mg protein/min
3.2.5.3
DETERMINATION OF ALANINE AMINO
TRANSFERASE ACTIVITY
The method of assay was
based on that of Reitman and Frankel,(1957) in which alanine transaminase or
glutamate pyruvatetransferase activity was measured by monitoring the
concentration of pyruvate hydrazine formed with 2,4-dinitrophenyl hydrazine.
Procedure
Table 3: protocol for the assay of
Alanine Amino Transferase
Pipette into test – tubes:
Blank Sample
Sample -
0.1ml
Solution R1 0.5ml 0.5ml
Mix and incubate for
exactly 30 minutes at 37ºc
Sample R2
0.5ml 0.5ml
Distilled water 0.1ml -
Mix and allow standing for
exactly 20 minutes at 20-25ºc
Add sodium hydroxide 0.5ml 0.5ml
Mix and read the absorbance of sample
against the reagent blank after 5 minutes at 546nm.
Calculation: Activity in international unit x dilution fation
period x amount of protein in each enzyme source- International unit/mg
protein/min
3.2.6 DETERMINATION OF LIVER FUNCTION INDICES
3.2.6.1 DETERMINATION
OF SERUM GLOBULIN
CONCENTRATION
The determination of serum globulin level was done
using the
methods described by (Tietz, 1995) by subtracting
the concentration
of serum albumin from the total protein content
carried out using
Biuret Reagent Method. The concentration of globulin was expressed
in g/L.
3.2.6.2 DETERMINATION OF SERUM ALBUMN
CONCENTRATION
The method of determining serum albumin
concentration Doumas et al, (1971),
was used.
Principle:
Albumin has
the ability to binds certain dyes. When
bromo cresol green (BCG), pH 4.2 binds to albumin, it results in the formation
of a dye albumin complex which exhibits optical properties different from the
dye. The presence of a surface active
agent potentiates the change. The
absorption of the BCG-albumin complex was read spectrophotometrically at 639
nm.
PROCEDURE:
Four
millimeters of working dye solution was pipette into test tube i.e. standard,
sample and blank. 20 µL of standard (50
g/L) or test sample was added to the appropriate tube, mixed and the absorbance
were measured immediately at 630 nm after setting the spectrophotometer to zero
absorbance with the working dye solution.
The results were then read off from the calibration
graph and
calculated as follows.
Calculation:
Albumin
(g/L) = Atest X
Concentration of std
Astd.
Where Atest
= Absorbance reading of test
Astd = Absorbance reading of
standard
Concentration
of standard (50 g/L)
3.2.6.3 DETERMINATION
OF SERUM BILIRUBIN CONCENTRATION
The method
of Evelyn and Malloy (1938) was used.
PRINCIPLE:
The bilirubin in the serum was coupled with
diazotized sulphanilicacid to form purple color that was proportional to the
bilirubin concentration in the serum. The sub-sequent addition of methanol
accelerates the reactions of un-conjugated bilirubin in the serum and the value
for the total bilirubin can be obtained. The color formed in the reaction was measured
spectrophotometrically at 520 nm.
PROCEDURE:
1.5 ml of distilled water and 0.2ml of the
serum were pipette into the test and blank tubes. 0.4 ml of Diazo reagent was added to the
tubes. It was then shaken and left for 5
minutes after which the absorbance was read at 540 nm. The reading gives the value of conjugated
bilirubin in the sample. The value of
total bilirubin was
obtained when 2 ml each of methanol was added to the
tube and left for 5 minutes and then read at 540 nm. The reading gives the value of conjugated
bilirubin in the sample.
CALCULATION
For
total bilirubin = Optical density of
test X 342 µmol/L
Optical density of the standard
Where 342
µmol/L is the concentration of the standard
3.2.6.4 DETERMINATION OF TOTAL SERUM PROTEIN
CONCENTRATION.
Protein
concentration of the homogenates and the serum samples
were determined using Biuret method (Plummer, 1978).
The assay mixture consisted of: Sample
(homogenate/serum, appropriately diluted)
1.0mlBiuret reagent 4.0ml
This was mixed thoroughly by shaking. It was then allowed to stand for 30 minutes.
The blank was made up to 4.0 ml of Biuret reagent and 1.0ml of distilled
water. The optical densities were read
against the blank at 540 nm. Concentration of the protein present in the
samples was calculated by comparing them with the standard protein curve for
bovine serum albumin (BSA). The curve was obtained using varying concentrations
of BSA (1- 10 mg/ml).
PROCEDURE:
The procedure included addition of 4.0ml of Biuret
reagent to 1.0 ml of each concentration as shown in Table 1. This was then
mixed by shaking and left to stand for 30 minutes at room temperature. The optical densities were then read against
the blank at 540 nm.
TEST TUBES
Reagent
|
Blank
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
6
|
8
|
9
|
10
|
BSA
(10 mg/ml)
|
0
|
.1
|
.2
|
.3
|
.4
|
.5
|
.6
|
.7
|
.8
|
.9
|
1.0
|
Distilled
Water (ml)
|
1.0
|
0.9
|
0.8
|
0.7
|
0.6
|
0.5
|
0.4
|
0.3
|
0.2
|
0.1
|
0
|
Biuret reagent (ml)
|
4
|
4
|
4
|
4
|
4
|
4
|
4
|
4
|
4
|
4
|
4
|
3.3 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Statistical analysis data used presentation as a means
± SD of five determinations. Statement analysis was carved out using one way
analysis of variances (ANOVA). Differences were statistically significant at P
<0.05 (Mahyan, 1997)
4.0 CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 RESULTS.
The result of the effect of
ethanol leaf extract of Piliostigma thonningii
on liver function indices following pefloxacin induced toxicity reveals a
significant (P<0.05) increase in serum albumin in all the experimental
groups when compared with the control (Fig 1) .Likewise, serum globulin depicts
a significant increase (P<0.05) while groups treated with pefloxacin and
mixture of pefloxacin and ethanol leaf extract of Piliostigma thonningii showed
significant (P<0.05) decrease when compared with the control (Fig
2). Except for group B which reveals a
significant increase in serum bilirubin when compared with the control ,group C
and D showed a significant decrease when
compared with the control (Fig
3). Effect of ethanol leaf extract of Piliostigma thonningii and Pefloxacin on
serum AST,ALT and ,ALP concentration showed a significant (P<0.05) decrease
when compared with the control (Fig 4- 6
). Following the administration of
the extract and drug respectively ,Liver AST and ALT reveals a significant decrease in
groups administered with ethanol leaf
extract of Piliostigma thonningii and mixture of pefloxacin and ethanol leaf
extract of Piliostigma thonningii while
groups administered with the drug showed a significant (P<0.05) increase
when compared with the control (Fig 7 and 8). Following the administration of
the drug and the extract, the Liver ALP showed a significant (P<0.05)
increase in groups treated with the extract and drug alone while groups treated
with both the extract and pefloxacin showed a significant decrease (P<0.05)
when compared with the control.(Fig 9)
 |
| Fig 1: Effect of ethanol leaf extract of Piliostigma thonningii and Pefloxacin on serum albumin concentration |
 |
| Fig 2: Effect of ethanol leaf extract of Piliostigma thonningii and Pefloxacin on serum bilirubin concentration |
 |
| Fig 3: Effect of ethanol leaf extract of Piliostigmathonningii and Pefloxacin on serum globulin concentration |
 |
| Fig 4 : Effect of ethanol leaf extract of Piliostigma thonningii and Pefloxacin on serum AST concentration |
 |
| Fig 5 : Effect of ethanol leaf extract of Piliostigma thonningii and Pefloxacin on serum ALT concentration |
 |
| Fig 6: Effect of ethanol leaf extracts of Piliostigma thonningii and Pefloxacin on serum ALP concentration |
 |
Fig 7: effect of
ethanol leaf extract of Pilliostigma
thonningii and pefloxacin on liver AST concentration
|
 |
| Fig 8: Effect of ethanol leaf extract of Piliostigma thonningii and Pefloxacin on liver ALT concentration |
 |
| Fig 9: Effect of ethanol leaf extract of Piliostigma thonningii and Pefloxacin on liver ALP concentration |
DISCUSSION.
The biochemical indices studied in this research are
sensitive and useful parameters to indicate the alterations caused by the drugs
on the hepatic capacity or integrity of the rats. More so, alteration in the biomarkers of the liver function
indices might be useful tool to monitor the level of injury or damage by the
plant extract before biopsy (Dasofunjo et
al.,.2013). The significant (p<0.05) increase caused by the Albumin and
Globulin level following the administration of the drug and extract implied
that the extract/drug produced an increase in protein synthesis and (or)
mobilization or antibody (Puri et al.,1993;
Adewuyi and Afolayan, 2009). Albumin is the protein with the highest
concentration in the plasma. It transports many molecules in the blood. It
prevents the fluid in the blood from leaking out the tissue (Duncan et al., 1994). Albumin is a constituent
of the total protein produced in the liver. Albumin levels are decreased in
chronic liver disease such as cirrhosis or nephrotics syndrome. Therefore, the
observed increase in serum albumin and globulin in all the treated groups is an
indication that the extract/drug may promote good functioning of the liver or
possess a hepatoprotective role and may help calcium in the blood stream to
regulate the movement of water blood stream into body tissue.
The hepatocyte membrane distortion is associated with
membrane leakage of the hepatocyte cytosolic contents which is manifested by
significant elevation of serum/plasma enzymes of acute hepatocellular damage
namely ALT, AST and ALP as a marker hepatocellular damage (Bhaltacharyya et al., 2003).However of this marker
enzymes, ALT is the most reliable. AST is known to be abundance in the cardiac
muscles, skeletal muscles, kidneys and testes. Thus, any disease state
affecting any of these extra hepatic tissues significantly elevates the serum
level of enzymes.Therefore, the observed significant increase in serum ALT, AST
and ALP when compared with the control for the groups treated with the drug
suggest that the drug might induce hepatic damage or hepatotoxicity. These
findings are similar to the findings of other researchers (Farombi et al.,2000;Obi et al.,2004;Pari and Anuli, 2005;Dasofunjo et al., 2012). Alternatively,
the decrease in serum and liver AST, ALT support the report of Dasofunjo et al.,2013 that extract of Pilliostigma thonningii leaf exhibits an
hepatoprotective effect. Likewise, this present work showed that the co
-administration of the ethanol leaf extract of
Piliostigma thonningii and
Pefloxacin reduced significantly Serum / Liver ALP,ALT and AST . Though the
mechanism of action was not studied but it appears that co administration of
ethanol leaf extract of Piliostigma thonningii and Pefloxacin possess a synergistic effect which was able
to buffer or ameliorate the hepatotoxic
effect of the drug. Thus suggesting its hepatoprotective effect. Likewise, the
significant decrease in the serum level of
total bilirubin in groups treated with both drug and the extract, is an indication that the drug might not
induce injury to the hepatic tissue or caused conjugated hepatobilliary injury
on the wistar albino rats.
5.1 CONCLUSION.
The biochemical alterations on the liver functional
indices studied suggest that ethanol leaf extract of p. thonningii administered possess a hepato protective effect,
since no injury was observed on the liver but with the evidence of hepatic
injury/assault in groups treated with Pefloxacin which was ameliorated in
groups co- administered with both the drug and the extract.
REFERENCES.
Adewuyi E.A and Afolayan (2009): Safety evolution of the extract from the roots of pelagoniumreniforme
Curtis in male Wistar rats. Asia journal of pharmacy and pharmacology
vol. (3) 8:Pp 368-373
Akindahunsi A. A, Salawu S. O (2005): Phytochemical Screening and Nutritient- antinutrient composition of
selected tropical greenleafy
vegetables. African Journal of
Biotechnology.4 (6): 497- 501.
Akinniyi J. A, Sultanbawa M.U.S(1983). A glossary of
Kanuri names of plants with botanical names, distribution
and uses. Annals of Borno 1:85-98.
Akinpelu D, Obuotor E.M (2000). Antibacterial Activity
of Piliostigma thonningii stem, Bark fitoterapia,
74 (4): 442-443.
Bergan T, Delin C, John S, Kosted I, I.M & Nord
C.E (1986).
on
salivery and faecal microflora. Journal
of Antimicrobial Agents.29,
298-302.
Berg t, Delanghe S, Al-Alam D, Utely S, Estrada J,
Wang K.S (2010). Beta catemin
regulates Mesenchymalproginator cell differenciation
during hepactogenesis. J. Surg. Res. 164 (2):276- 285.
Benbow S.J & Gill G (1997).peroxetine and
Hepactotxicity.British Medical Journal, 314, 1387.
Bender D.A (2003): Nutritional Biochemistry of the
vitamins. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press.
.Benjamin L.S, Sherman P.M (2008): Paediatric
gastrointestinal Connecticut:
PMPH-USA. Pp 751.
Bhattaacharyya D., R. Mukherjee S., Pandit N. Das and
T.K Sur (2003):Prevention of carbon
tetrachloride induced hepatotoxicity in
rats by Hmmoliv(a polyherbal formation). Ind.
Pharmacological., 35:183-185
Bruce M, Carlson .(2004): Human Embryology and
development biology. 3rd Ed..
Saint Luis Mosby.
Burhardt J.E, Walterspiel J.N, Sshaad U.B (1997):
Quinolone arthropathy in animals
versus children.Clin.infect. Dis. 25 (5):1196-11204.
Burkill H.M (1995): The useful plants of west Africa.
2nd Ed. Volume 3,Royal
botanic gardens, knew Richmond. United Kingdom Pp. 857BryskierD,and Chamtot J.F (1995): Classification and Structural activityof fluoroquinolones. Drugs.49 (2):16-28.
Chan P.C, Cheng I.K, Chan M.K and Wong W.T (1990):
Clinical experience with pefloxacin in
patients with urinary Tract Infection. British
Journal of clinical practice, 200, 480-495.
Chevalier X, Albengres E, Voisin M.C, Tillement J.P,
Larget-Piet B(1992): A case of destructive
polyarthropathy in a 17 year old youth
following pefloxacin treatment: Drug
safty 7(4): 310-314.
Chichmanian R.M, Spreux A, Bemard E, Garraffo R,
Fuzibet J.G(1992): (thrombopenia
due to pefloxacin dose-dependent toxicity)
therapie
(in french) 47(5): 419-421.
Coates P.M (2002): Keith Coates Palgrave Trees of
Southern Africa, 3rd Ed.
Striuke, Ape Town. Pp.1212 ISBN: 1-86872, R 295-296.
Coster P.N, Cook M.T, and Ekret W. (1989): Pefloxacin
distribution in prostate tissue and
fluid following oral administration. Chemotherapy: 31, 13-18
Cortran, Ranzi S, Kumar V, Nelson F, Robbins S.L,
Abba, Abul K (2005):Robbins and
Cortran Pathological basis of disease. 7th Ed. Saint Louis, Else view Sanders. Pp 878
Conzales C.N (1984): Antimicrobial activity
pharmacokinetics and gynecology. Mediterranean Congress of Chemotherapy
Abstract. 636, 14-16.
Cowan M.M (1999):Plant products as Antimicrobial
Agents. Clinical microbiology, Rev. 12 (4):
564-582.
Dasofunjo K., Nwodo O.F.C., Yakubu O.E., Ejoba R., Ukpanukpong
R.U., Ipav
S.S., Ugwu M.N., Okafor A.I andGirgi S.I. (2013): Hepatoprotective effect of P.thonningii
leaves on male wistar albino rats. Asia Journal
of Plant Science andRresearch. 3(4):13- 17
Dasofunjo K., O.F.C., Nwodo S.S., Ipav Z.L., Barminas
(2012):Effect of the ethanolic extract
of Piliostigma thonningiion haematological parameters of male albino wistarrats. J. Nat. Prod. Plant Resour.2(6):670-674.
De Sarro A, De Sarro G (2001): Adverse reactions to fluoroquinolones, an overview on Mechanistic aspects (PDF). Curr. Med. Chem. 8 (4):371-384.
Domagala, John M, Clifford, Heifetz, Carl L. (1990): The New generation of quinolones.
New York: M Dekker ISBN 08247- 8224-0
Doncan G.E.,MOY S.S., Lieberman J.A., Kollar B.H(2006): Pharmacol. Biochem.Behav. 10(85):481-491
Doull J (1975). The effects of physical environmental factors in drug respons. In L.J. casarette and J. Doull
(Eds.) Toxicology, the basics of
science poisons. New York: Macmillan.
Drlica K, Zhao X (1997): DNA gyrase, topoisomerase IV, and the 4- quinolones. Meicrobiol Mol. Bio Rev. 61 (3):
377-392.
Djuma (2003): Djuma Game Reserve Copyright (C) 1998-2003.
Drusano G (1989): Review of the pharmacology of new fluoroquinolones related to treatment of
sexually transmitted diseases. Infect. And med.. letters for obstetrics
and Gynaecology, 8 (4) 3031.
Eisenhaver LA, Nicholes LW, Spencer RT, Bergan FW(1998): Clinical Pharmacology and Nursing Management. Philadelphia, Pa, USA: Lippincott.
Elsea S.H, Osheroff N, Nistiss J.L (1992). Cytotoxicity of quinolones toward eukaryotic cells. Identification of topoisomerase II as the primary cellular target for the
quinonolone CP- 115, 953 in yeast. J. Biol. Chem. 267 (19): 13150-13153.
Evans AT, Husain S, Durairaj L, Sadowski LS, Charles- Damte M,Wang Y(2002): Azithromycin for acute
bronchitis: a randomised,double-blind,
controlled trial. Lancet.359 (9318): 1648-1654.
Fabricant D.S, Famsworth N.R (2001): The value of plants used in traditional medicine for drugs
discovery. Envinin Health Prespect. 10
(1): 69-75.
Farombi E.O., B.I., Olowu and G.O Emerole (2000): Effect of three s structurally related antimalerial drugs
on lipid microsomal components and
lipid peroxidation in rats. Comp.Biochem Physio., 126:217-224
Falagas ME, Rafailidis P.I, Rosmarakis E.S (2007): Arrhythmias associated with fluoroquinolone therapy. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 29 (4): 374-379.
Fourtiller J.B (1981): Quinolones in the elderly. Journal of Antimicrobial infection.
3 (2): 561-570.
Forsgren A, Bredberg A, Pardee A.B, Schlossman S.F, Tedder T.F(1987): Effects of ciprofloxacin on
eukaryotic pyrimidine nucleotide biosynthesis
and cell growth. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother 31 (5): 774-779.
Frydman A.M, Le Roux Y, Lefebvre M.A, Djebbarf, Fourtillan J Gaillot (1986): Pharmacokinetics of
pefloxacin after repeated intravenous
and oral administration (400mg bid) in young healthy
volunteers. J. Antimicrob, Chemother
17: 65-79.
Galatti L, Guistini S.E, Sessa A (2005): Neuropsychiatric reactions to drugs: an analysis of Spontaneous reports from generalpractitioners
in Italy; Pharmacol P.H, 211-216.
Geffraiud- Recoyard C, Jurgers P, Chauveau P, Grunfeld J.P (1994): Inefficiency and toxicity of pefloxacin:
Focal and Segment glomeruoscelrosis with
steroid resistant nephritic syndrome. Journal of Paediatrics nephrology, 14 (2):
312-318..
Giardina W.J (1991): Assessment of temafloxacin neurotoxicity in rodents.The American Journal of Medicine, 91, 42-44.
Gilbert S.F (2000): Developmental Biology (6th Ed.) Sunderland (MA): Sinaver
Associates. ISBN 10: 1-8789.
Available from http/www,nlbi.nib.gov/books/NBK
9983.
Glodny B, Unterholzner V, Tafermen B (2009). Normal liver size and its influencing
factors. A 64- slice MDCT study of 1.040 asymptomatic
patients. N Engl. J. Med. 317:
1098-1099.
Guyton A.C and Hall J.E
(1996).The liver as an organ. In C.A uyton and J.E
Hall (Eds.), Textbook of Medical Physiology (9th Ed.) (Pp. 883- 885), Philadelphia: W.S. Saunders 32.
Gibbs P.N.B, Gore
M.G, Jordan P.M. Investigation of the effect of metal ions on there
activity of thiol groups
in humans : Aminolevulinate dehydratase. Biochem. J. 1985(225):
573-580.
Hooper D.C &Wolfson J. (1985). The fluoroquinolones: Pharmacology, clinical uses and toxicities in human. Journal of Antimicrobial Agent and Chemotherapy, 79, 230-231.
Hopkins H, Talisuna A, Whitney C.J.M, Marsh K (2007): Impact of home based
management of malaria on health outcomes in Africa: asystemic review of evidence. Malaria
J. 6: 134.
Hosomi J.A, Maeda Y, Oomori T, Irikura and T. Yokota (1988):Mutagenicity of norfloxacin and AM
–833 in bacteria and mammalian cells.Rev. infect. Dis 10 (1) 148-149.
Hussy P, Maass G, Tummler B, Grosse F, Shomburg U (1986): Effect of 4-quinolnes and novobiocin on calf
thymus DNA polymerase alpha
primase complex, topoisomerase I and II, and growth of mammalianlymphoblasts. Antimicrob.Agentschemother. 29 (6):1073-1078.
Igoli J.O, Igwue I.C, Igoli N.P. (2003): Traditional Medicinal Practices
among the Igede People of Nigeria. Journal of Herbs, Species and Medicinal plants. Nigeria. 10 (4): 1-10.
IwelewaE.O,Lege-oguntoye L, Rai P.P, Iyaniwura T.T, Etkin N.L (1990): In vitro antimalarial activitiesof leaf
extract of cassia occidentals and
Guierasenegalensis in plasmodium yoelinigeriensis. West. Afr. J. Pharmacol. Drug.
Res. 9: 19-21.
James R, Roberts (2008): Adverse Reaction Fluoroquinolones.Emergency
Medicine News 30 (10):16-18.
Jimoh F.O, Oladeji A.T (2005): Preliminary studies of
Piliostigma thonningii seeds. Proximate analysis,mineral composition and photochemical Screening. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 4 (12):1439-1442.
Jones S.F, Smith RH (1997): Quinolones may induce hepatitis (PDF) BMJ 314 (7084): 869
Kashida Y, Sasaki Y.F, Ohsawa K (2002): Mechanistic study on flumequine hepatocarcinogenicity focusing 0n
DNA damage in Mice. Toxicol. Sci. 69 (2): 317-321.
Khaliq Y, Zhanel G.G (2005): Musculoskeletal injury associated with fluoroquinolone antibiotics. Clin.Plast. Surg. 32 (4): 495-502.
Kuijper E.J, Van Disse J.T, Wilcox M.H, E.J (2007): Clostridium difficile: Changing epidemiology and New
treatment options.Cuur.Opin.Infect. Dis. 20 (4): 376-383.
Lade A.G, Monya S.P (2011): Beta-carotin signalling in hepatic development and progenitors: which way does
the Wnt blow? Dev.Dyn. 240 (3): 486-500.
Lannini P.B (2007): The Safety Profile of Moxifloxacin and other fluoroquinolones in special patient
populations. Curr.Med. Res. Opin. 23 (6): 1403-1413.
Leone R, Venegonic M, Motola D (2003): Adverse drug reaction to the use of fluoroquinolone antimicrobials: an
analysis of spontaneous reports and
fluoroquinolone consumption data from
three Italian regions. Drug Saf 26 (2): 109-120.
Lewis R.J, Mohr J.F (2008): Dysglycaemias and fluoroquinolone Drug Safe 31 (4):
283-292.
Liu S, Babjide O, Charles DH, Avie M (1990). 3- methoxysampangine. A Noval antifungal copyrine alkaloids fungi
deistopholis pattern. Antimicrobials Agents and Chemotherapy.
34 (4): 529-533.
Lock J.T, Simpson M.J (1999): Legumes of West Tropical Asiaa. 3rd
Ed. Academic press inc,
London Pp. 216-220.
Loren G, Yamamoto (2004): Antibiotics: Case Based Pediatrics for Medical Students and Resdents.
Department of paediatrics,university
of Hawaii.ISBN 1-4184-4728-5.
Melhorn A.J, Brown A.D (2007): Safety concerns with fluoroquinolones. Ann pharmacother. 41 (11):1859-1866.
Monstay, G. Gouffon Y & Campos S. (1984): Pefloxacin clinical and Pharmacokinetics study in health and
disease. Journal of Antimicrobial Agent and Chemotherapy,
24, 463-473.
Obi E., O.E. Orisakwe, L.A., Asongha, O.O. Udemezue and V.N Orish(2004):
The hepatotoxic effect of halofrantrine in guinea pigs. Indian J.Pharmacol.
26:203-305.
Owens R.C, Ambrose P.G (2005): Antimicrobial safety: Focus non fluoroquinolones. Clin. Infect. Dis 41 (2):
144-157.
PangonD.E,Bahal N &Nahatu M.C (1990): Effects of oral pefloxacin in the faecal and oral bacteria in human
volunteers. Journal of Antimicrobial chemotherapy. 27, 355-360.
Pari L and R.D Anuli(2005): Protective role of tetrahydrocurumin (THC) active principle of turmeric on chloroquine induce hepatotoxicity in rats. J.Pharm.Sci.8:115-123.
Paul R, Farley M, Albert J, May W.F (2002): Patients as a person. Explorations. Medpharm Scientific Stuttgart. Germany. Pp 589.
Pepin J, Saheb N, Coulombe M.A, J (2005): Emergence of fluoroquinolones as the predominant risk
factor for clostridium difficile-
associated diarrheas: a cohort study during an epidemic in Quebec. Clin.
Infect. Dis. 41 (9): 1254-1260.
Peterson M, Van D.E and Ekret W. (1989): Pefloxacin distribution in prostatic tissue and fluid following oral
administration. Chemotherapy 31, 13-18.
Pike, Bethesda M.D (2012): Privacy accessibility guidances. Dept of health and human services. National inst. Of health- United states of America.
Rubinstein E (2001): History of quinolones and their side effects. Cell Mol. Life Sci. 58 (9):1189-205.
Puri M., Goyal, A., Senutovich, N., Dowd, S.R., Minden, J.S. (2008): Building proteomic pathways using
Drosophila ventral furrow formation
as a model. Mol. Biosyst. 4 (11): 1126-1135
Sade M.A &Mandell G.I (1985): The aminoglycosides. In S.Goodman and W. Gilmaris (Eds), The pharmacological Basis of therapeutics (7th Ed.)
(Pp 1150-1163). New York: Macmillan
Saint F, Guiguen G, Bisterte J, Fontaine C, Mazeman E (2000):Ruptureof the patellar ligament
one month after treatment with fluoroquinolone. (infrench). Rev cairorthop Reparative Appar Mot
86(5): 495-497.
Schentag J.J, Scully B.E (1999): Quinolones – Barriere, Steve L, YU,Victor Y.H, Merigan, Thomas
C.Antimicrobial therapy and Vaccines.Baltinmere:
Williams & Wilkins. Pp. 875-901.
Screenivasulu Y & Reddy G.R (1995): Haematological Changes in garden Lizar,CalotesMemricola due to
the defensive secretion of the
grasshopper peoculocurus pictures. Drug and chemical Toxicology,
18, 223-229. By an in vitro Model.Journal
of Antimicrobial Agents and
chemotherapy. 42,1831-1836.
Shimoda K, Yoshida M, Wagai N, Takayama S, Kato M (1993):Phototoxic lesions induced by
quinolone antibacterial agents in
auricular skin and retina of albino mice.
Toxicol pathol 21 (6): 554-561.
Stratton C (1992): Fluoroquinolone antibiotics: Properties of the class and individual agents. Clin. Ther. 14(3):
348-375.
Scultes R.E, Hofmann A (1973). The Botany and chemistry of Hallucinogens, Charles C, Thomas, Spring
Fields III P 267.
Stephen J.J, Inderbir S.G, Raymond R (2006): Operative Urology at the Cleveland clinic. Totown, N.J: Humana Pres.
ISBN: 1588290816.Pp. 552.
Sissi C, Palumbo M (2003): The quinolone family: from anti-bacterial to anticancer agents. Curr Me Chem. anticancer agents. 3 (6): 439- 450.
Suto M.J, Domagala J.M, Roland G.E, Mailloux G.B, Cohen M.A (1992): fluoroquinolones: relationships between
structural variations, mammalian
cell cytotoxicity and antimicrobial activity. J. med. Chem. 35 (25): 4745-4750
Tendon S.(2005): Phytochemicals and cardiovascular health. Current R and D Highlights. 28: 18-22.
Tietz N.W. (2000): Fundamentals of clinical chemistry. 6th
Ed. Philadelphia. P.A Saunders. Pp.
744 - 775, 788-789.
Tietz N.W (1995): tietz Textbook of clinical chemistry. Saunders Company, London . Pp. 300-305.
Umah I.A, Kaldapa J.T, Otukonyaong, E.T, Omega J.J &Buratai L.B (1996): Garlic induced haemolytic anaemia
in garlic fed rats maybe associated
with decreased levels of erythrocytes reduced
glutathione and serum
ascorbic acid. West African Journal of Biological
Sciences 4, 73-81.
Vial T, Chauplannaz G, Brunel P, Lerche B, Evreux J.c (1995): Exacerbation of myasthenia gravis by pefloxacin.
Rev. Neurol. (Paris) (in French.) 151 (4):
286-287.
Walter F, Boron (2004): Medical Physiology: A cellular and molecular approach. Elseview/ Saunders.ISBN:
9781416031154.
Yaseen A, Al-soud, Najim A, Al-masoudi (2003): Anew class of Dihaloquinolones Bearing
N-Aldehydoglycosylhydrazides, mercapto-1,2,4-tiazole,
oxadiazoline and alpha-amino ester
precursors: Synthesis and
antimicrobial Activity. J. Braz. Chem. Soc. 14 (5): 790-796.
APPENDIX
1. BIURET REAGENT.
A.
Cooper (II) Sulphate (VI) Pentahydrate (CuSO4.5H2O) 1.50g and solution.
Potassium
tartarate (NAKCH4.4H2O) 6.0g KI 1.0g were dissolved in distilled water to make
500ml solution.
B. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) 300g was dissolved in
distilled water to make 300ml solution (10% W/V). Solution B was made up to 1
litre with distilled water and the solution stored in polythene bottle.
2. SUCROSE SOLUTION (0.25M).
21.39g
of sucrose was dissolved in a little quantity of distilled water and later make
up to 250 ml marks in a volumetric flask. It was later transfer into reagent
bottle and kept in theRefrigerator until required.
3. BOVINE SERUM ALBUMIN (1% BSA).
Bovine
serum Albumin (1%) was prepared by dissolving 1g of BSA powder in a little
quantityof distilled water wit continuous stirring and the solution made up to
100mls.
4. Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) 2.10G was
dissolved in distilled water to make 250ml solution. A little quantity of
sodium bicarbonate solution was added to sodium carbonate solution withstirring
until the pH 1, 10.1, using the pH meter.
Table
1: protocol for acid of alkaline phosphatase activity
Reagents volume of reagent added (ml)
Blanks Test
0.1m
carbonate buffer (pH 10. 1)
2.2 2.2
0.1m
MgSO4. 7H2O
0.1 0.1
Enzyme
source (tissue homogenate
Appropriate
diluted)
- 0.2
Incubation
in water bath at 370C for 10mins
19MM
PNPP
0.5⃰⃰ 0.5
Incubation
for further 10min at 37oC in water bath
In
NaOH (to stop reaction) 2.0 2.0
The
substrate was added to the blank after stopping the reaction with
NaOH.
Table 2: protocol
for the assay aspartate amino transterase
Reagent
Reagent
blank sample
Sample 0.1ml
Solution
1 0.5ml 0.5ml
Distilled
water 0.1ml
Mix
incubate for 30 minutes at 370c
Solution
2 10.5ml 0.5ml
Mix
allow to stand for exactly for 20 minutes at room temperature
Sodium
hydroxide 0.5mls 0.5ml
Table
3: protocol for the assay of Alanine Amino Transferase
Reagent Blank Sample
Sample
- 0.1ml
Solution
R1 0.5ml 0.5ml
Mix
and incubate for exactly 30 minutes at 37ºc
Sample
R2
0.5ml 0.5ml
Distilled
water 0.1ml
-
Mix
and allow standing for exactly 20 minutes at 20-25ºc
Add
sodium hydroxide
0.5ml 0.5ml
TABLE FOUR: PROTOCOL FOR THE
DETERMINATION OF STANDARD PROTEIN CURVE
TEST TUBES
Reagent
|
Blank
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
6
|
8
|
9
|
10
|
BSA
(10 mg/ml)
|
0
|
.1
|
.2
|
.3
|
.4
|
.5
|
.6
|
.7
|
.8
|
.9
|
1.0
|
Distilled
Water (ml)
|
1.0
|
0.9
|
0.8
|
0.7
|
0.6
|
0.5
|
0.4
|
0.3
|
0.2
|
0.1
|
0
|
Biuret reagent (ml)
|
4
|
4
|
4
|
4
|
4
|
4
|
4
|
4
|
4
|
4
|
4
|